Therapeutic Potential of Ziziphus Spina-Christi (Sidr) Extracts: Linking Green Extraction and Analytical Standardization to Pharmacological Activity and Nanodelivery

Abstract

Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. (Sidr or Christ’s thorn jujube) is a multipurpose tree of the family Rhamnaceae that has been a mainstay in Middle Eastern and African folk medicine for centuries. Leaves, bark, fruits and roots are rich in bioactive metabolites, including flavonoids, saponins, cyclopeptide alkaloids and tannins which together are responsible for a wide spectrum of pharmacological effects. There is increasing evidence that supports the medicinal promise of the crude extract but converting this research into standardised clinically relevant formulations remains a major challenge. This review, including literature published until early 2025, critically reviews the phytochemistry, green extraction strategies, as well as analytical standardisation approaches adopted for Z. spina-christi extracts, while simultaneously charting their documented pharmacological activities including antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects. Furthermore, we discuss the rapidly emerging area of nanodelivery platforms, from green-synthesized metallic nanoparticles to polymeric and lipid-based nanocarriers, to address the inherent bioavailability problems of phytoconstituents. Special attention is paid to the way the integration of green chemistry concepts with rigorous chromatographic and spectroscopic quality control might close the gap between ethnobotanical tradition and evidence-based phytotherapy. It points out the current gaps of knowledge and directions for future study, highlighting the need for harmonised extraction techniques, verified analytical markers and well-designed clinical studies.

Highlights
Comprehensive survey of Ziziphus spina-christi phytochemistry covering flavonoids, saponins, cyclopeptide alkaloids, and phenolic acids across different plant organs.
Critical evaluation of green extraction techniques (UAE, MAE, SFE, and deep eutectic solvents) with emphasis on solvent selection and process optimization.
Integration of HPLC-DAD, LC-MS/MS, and GC-MS analytical platforms for chemical fingerprinting and marker-based standardization.
Consolidated evidence on pharmacological activities spanning antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer domains.
Detailed discussion of nanodelivery strategies, including green-synthesized Ag, Au, ZnO, and CuO nanoparticles, plus polymeric and lipid nanocarriers that enhance bioavailability.